House of Tata Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

House of Tata - Case Study Example The license raj along with the dominating factor of the red tapes brought into effect significant amount of impact in regards to the irreparable financial bleeding of the business houses and entities. A lot many barriers also emerged in the business scene because of the tremendous opposition from various political parties. With the opening of the Indian economy, foreign direct investment was allowed to flow into the country. With the removal of various government based restrictions, varying amount of investments by the private and family held organizations was allowed in multiple sectors all over the country. It is of high relevance to highlight that the opening up of the economy in regards to foreign and private investments in various sectors promoted a significant amount of business opportunities. It is of high importance to mention that the diverse range of companies that were held together under the highly efficient leadership of JRD Tata has always moved forward and operated in a decentralized structure in regards to tackling the daily business operations. Because of the power of decentralization promoted by the leader JRD Tata himself, the independent set of companies which are centrally owned by the Tatas focused on capitalizing on the various growth opportunities provided by the opening up of the Indian economy. ... A presence of a single brand would have helped the India’s most popular corporate house to significantly communicate a unified set of value offerings for the company to the markets of India as well as around the world. Talking in regards to the value additions that might have happened in regards to the development of a single corporate brand, it needs to be mentioned that because of the ownership of multiple companies, the Tatas needed a strong and single line of communication that will communicate the brand’s superiority to the others. While in the past, the presence of JRD Tata helped in communicating the values of the group in a central manner, in the recently changing times, a single corporate brand will solve the purpose. Talking in regards to the positives, associated with the formation of a brand, it needs to be highlighted that the single corporate brand based identity will act as a pillar of strength and communication for all the associated companies of the Tat as. Also, it will help in communicating the brand values of the Tatas in the open markets in comparison to other rival brands. Talking in the lines of negativity, it needs to be maintained that the companies will have to stick the code of ethics and values promoted by the entire group. Non failure to address the values promoted will lead to tampering of the entire brand image for the corporate house. 1b. Building of equity interlocks among the Tata companies It is of utmost importance to mention that the Tata group of companies has ownership for multiple companies. Because of the leadership style practiced by JRD Tata, who was credited as the senior most commander of the group before Ratan

Modernisation and under-development Essay Example for Free

Modernisation and under-development Essay The concept of globalisation is one that has become widely used in debates in politics, business and the media over the past few years. A decade ago the term globalisation was relatively unknown. Today it seems to be on the tip of everyones tongue. Globalisation refers to the fact we all increasingly live in one world, so that individuals, groups and nations become interdependent. According to Held, Goldblatt and Perraton globalisation is an idea whose time has come yet it (globalisation) lacks precise definition. Despite the imprecision of the term globalisation the use of the term, according to Held and McGrew, reflects increased interconnectedness in political, economic and cultural matters across the world creating a shared social space. Hyperglobalists argue that contemporary globalisation defines a new era in which peoples everywhere are increasingly subject to the disciplines of the global marketplace. Although economic forces are an integral part of globalisation, it would be wrong to suggest that they alone produce it. Globalisation is created by the coming together of politics, social, cultural and economic factors. It has been driven forward above all by the development of the information and communication technologies that have intensified the speed and scope of interaction between people al over the world. As a simple example, think of the last 2008 Olympics. Because of global television links some of the sports are now watched by millions worldwide. Marx believed direct expressions of underlying economic organisation, quite different types of political order may exist in societies that have similar production systems. For instance, some societies based on industrial capitalism have had authoritarian political systems (examples are Nazi German and South Africa under apartheid) whole others are much more democratic for example, the United States, Britain or Sweden. The impact of science and technology both influence and are influenced by political and cultural factors scientific and technology development for example helped create modern forms of communication such as radio and television. Radio, television and other electronic media have also come to shape the how we think and feel about the world. The invention of writing for instance, allowed for the keeping of records, making possible increased control of material resources and development of large scale organisations. The free market does nothing to address re-distribution of wealth. It assumes that wealth will trickle down to the poor. The former British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, once said it is our job to glory in inequality and see that talents and abilities are given vent and expression for the benefit of all of us.

Vincent van Gogh :: Essays Papers

Vincent van Gogh Vincent Van Goeh drew the painting, which is portrait of him. He drew himself as a red haired guy with gray shirt. In the picture, there is only himself and gray background. Gray background is making circle motions composed with thin lines. You can see a lot of circles in the background. His hair, bears, and eyelashes are colored with red. His hair and bears are not trimmed. His eyes are small and dark looking right at me. His shirt is gray and very old one. I touched his lips and all I felt was cold, firm paper. By the oily smell, I guessed he used oil colors. I couldn't hear or feel any sound as if he want to show me what silence is. I wanted to try to kiss him to feel the taste, but didn't want to get caught. He looked at mirror and found a subject he was looking for to draw. He carefully observed the man in the mirror. The man looked angry and tried. His lips are sealed as if he does not have anything to say. Silence was the man's only company. He had pens, pencils, canvas and everything to draw. He started with pencil. He drew the man, his hair, his eyes, his ear, and his shirts. He colored the man. He looked at the mirror again. He saw the man, and there was something missing. He gave colors on the air of the background. He carefully chose gray color, and filled the background. He finally touched his eyes to express the man's anger, or any feelings he had. I was walking without any concentration about the paintings on the wall. I stopped not because I found an interesting piece, but because he caught my eyes. His eyes were dark, and angry. They were looking right at me.

Advice - Is it Better to Give than to Receive? Essay -- Personal Narra

Advice - Is it Better to Give than to Receive? Advice and the language it’s given in can work only if the person in need of it can handle what is being said to them and accept it. Otherwise it just goes in one ear and out the other. Advice to me needs to be spoken in a calm and rational way or I tend not to listen to it. It can be advice from parents, relatives, friends, colleagues, or just about anyone, even myself. Advice given to me when I was younger was a lot different than when I got older. I tended not to listen to my parents. At nine and ten, they gave me an allowance. I saw it as money to run out and spend on candy. They saw it as a learning opportunity and a chance to instill a value system in me. At first I didn’t take the advice, in fact it took years to realize the im...

Hcm Chapter 10 11 12

CHAPTER 1 Social Influence The effect that words, actions, or presence of people have on our attitudes, thoughts, feelings and behavior Construal The way people interpret the social environment. (How do you construe someone's behavior? Is it polite, rude etc? ) Individual differences aspects of personalities that makes people unique Social psych analyses the individual in the context of a social situation, and it aims to identify universal human nature traits that makes everyone susceptible to social influences, regardless of social class or culture Fundamental attribution error xplaining our own or other peoples' behavior based on personality characteristics alone. Underestimates social influence Behaviorism Approach to understanding behavior through only reinforcing properties of events. (Positive, negative, punishment, operant conditioning) Gestalt psych Studies subjective way in which an object appears in peoples' minds, rather than the objective, physical attributes of the subje ct. Like perceiving a painting as a whole instead of the sum of its parts. Self-esteem The degree to which one views oneself as good, competent and decentSocial cognition how people select, interpret, remember and use social information to make judgments and decisions. CHAPTER 2 Hindsight Bias Exaggeration of how much one could predict an outcome after knowing that it already happened Observational method No random assignment, not experimental, view and record measurements of natural behavior Difficult to analyse certain behavior which occur rarely or in private (peoples' willingness to help a rape victim Ethnography Study of cultures by observing from the inside ie being a part of it Interrater reliability eliability of an experiment based on level of agreement from 2 or more independent judges Archival analysis Secondary source information based on historical records like newspapers, diaries etc. But information is limited and may be incomplete or inaccurate, and there is no way t o prove it Correlational method 2 variables that are measured and linear relationship observed Correlation coefficient degree to which 2 variables are directly related to one another Surveys Asked questions about attitudes or behaviorCan judge relationship between variables that are difficult to observe and are capable of sampling representative segments of the population Random selection To ensure good representation. Experimental method random assignment to different conditions, ensuring that there is no bias Each respondent has equal chance of being picked with no bias. Ensures conditions are identical except for the independent variable Independent variable Variable that is changed to see if it has an effect on some other variable Dependent variable Variable that is influenced by the independent variable.Dependent variable depends on the level of independent variable. p-value Significant if the value is less than 5% that the results might be due to chance factors. Internal valid ity Degree to which items within the test measure the construct. Nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable. By controlling for all extraneous variables and random assignment External validity Extent to which experiment can be generalised to other situations Psychological realism extent to which psychological process in an experiment are similar to those that occur in everyday lifeCover story disguised version of a study's true purpose. This increases psych realism as the story makes people feel they are in a real event. Field research Increases external validity by studying behavior outside the lab in natural settings Replications Ultimate test of external validity. Generalised to different settings, people etc. Meta-analysis Averages results of 2 or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable. Basic research Done purely out of curiosity to find answers Applied research Intends to solve particular problems Cross-cultural researchResearch done with other cultures to see if psychological processes are present or if unique to certain cultures Informed consent Agreement to participate, full awareness of the nature of experiment that is explained in advance Deception Misleading participants about true purpose of study Institutional review board reviews reasearch and its ethicality before allowing it to be conducted. must include at least 1 scientist, nonscientist and person nonaffiliated with institution. Debriefing Explaining to participants the true purpose of study and what transpired at the end of the experiment. CHAPTER 3 Automatic thinkingUnconscious, involuntary, effortless Controlled thinking is more effortful and deliberate Schemas mental structures that organise our knowledge about the social world, which influence the information we notice, think and remember. Applied to race or sex, schemas are stereotypes. We have schemas because they help us figure out whats going on. Accessibility extent t o which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of peoples' minds and therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world. Priming Automatic thinking. Process by which recent experiences increase accessibility of a schema, trait or concept. ome chronically accessible due to past experience – constantly active and ready to use to interpret ambiguous situations accessible because it is related to a current goal accessible because of recent experiences Self-fulfilling Prophecy Prediction that causes an event to come true based on positive reinforcements between belief and behavior Peoples expectations of what another is like -> influences how they act to the person -> causes a reaction consistent with peoples' original expectations -; makes expectations come true Often occurs but in some occasions, peoples' true nature will win out in social interactionJudgmental heuristic mental strategy and shortcut to make quick and effective judgments. Using schemas. A vailability heuristic Basing a judgment on self or others on the ease with which you bring something to mind. Linked to accessibility. But sometimes what is easily recalled is not typical of overall picture, leading to wrong conclusions Representativeness heuristic Classifying something according to how similar it is to a typical case. Like how similar Wang Nan is to all China people. Or scoring well in tests because asian Base Rate Information Information about relative frequency of members of different categories in the populationContents of our Schemas is influenced by our culture Differences in Western and Eastern Culture Western: Analytic Thinking – focusing on properties of objects without considering surrounding context (individualistic culture influence) Eastern: Holistic Thinking – focus on the overall context, in ways that objects relate to each other (collective culture) Controlled thinking thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful. Ca n switch on and off at will. Counterfactual thinking mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been. Aiyah why never get gold but i got silverThought suppression Attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget. Like ex gf, stomachache etc. Monitoring process – automatic part, searches for evidence that the unwanted thought is about to intrude the consciousness. Then the operating process – controlled part comes into play. The effortful attempt to distract oneself by finding something else to think of. When one is lacking in energy or preoccupied (under cognitive load), the operating process lets the intruding thought go unchecked leading to hyperaccessibility – the unwanted thought occurs with high frequency The ore you try not to think of something, the more it intrudes. Overconfidence barrier People usually have too much confidence in the accuracy of judgments (sure pass! sure this sure that) break this barrier by addressing overconfidence directly, giving possibility of them being wrong teach people directly some basic statistical and methodological principles to learn how to reason correctly, and hoping they will apply these principles CHAPTER 4 Social Perception study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about others Nonverbal communication how people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without words. ody language, touch etc. Mirror neurons brain cell that respond when we perform an action and when we see someone else perform the same action. When people yawn, we yawn. automatically and involuntarily. Encode Express nonverbal behavior like smiling Decode To interpret the meaning of nonverbal behavior. was the smile genuine or sarcastic 6 major emotions that can be recognised cross-culturally happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Maybe contempt and pride. Affect blends one part of the face registers one emotion while another part registers a i fferent emotion. blend of anger and disgust. This makes decoding sometimes inaccurate Display rules particular to each culture, and dictate the type of emotions people should show. Emblems gestures with clear, well understood definitions – middle finger, gangsta Implicit personality theory Type of schema used to group various personality traits together. Someone who is kind is also generous Relying on schemas might lead us to make wrong assumptions, might even resort to sterotype One culture's implicit personality theory might be different from another.America has â€Å"Artistic personality† but Chinese have no schema for that. Attribution theory how we infer causes of people's behavior Internal attribution Attribute a behavior to someone's personal traits didn't give money cos selfish External attribution Attribute behavior to a situation outside of person's traits didn't give money cos train was coming Covariation model To form a rational and logical attribution abou t what caused a behavior, we note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs. why she dont lend me? did she use to lend me? does she lend to others? † Consensus information extent to which others behave the same way towards the same stimulus as me (low consensus: boss only yells at me) Distinctiveness info how the actor responds to other stimuli (low distinctiveness: boss yells at others too) Consistency information frequency with which the observed behavior between same actor and same stimulus occur over time and circumstance (high consistency: boss yells at me everytime he sees me) When the above info combine into a pattern, attribution is made.Internal attribution – consensus and distinctiveness low, consistency high External attribution – consensus, distinctiveness, consistency high Situational attribution – assumes something unusual because consistency low. People rely more on consiste ncy and distinctiveness info and less on consensus info. Correspondence bias Tendency to infer that peoples' behavior corresponds to their dispositions and personality. I sit on reserved seat because i am disrespectful Perceptual salience seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention. If we can't see the situation, we ignore its importance. e pay attention to people instead (easier to see than the situation) and tend to think that they cause their own behavior. Two step process of making attributions 1. Internally attribute. (quickly and spontaneously) 2. Then adjust this attribution by considering the situation the person was in. But often, we don't adjust enough, and when we are distracted or preoccupied, we skip this step, making an extreme internal attribution. (requires effort and conscious attention) if we consciously slow down and think carefully, and if we're motivated to reach an accurate judgment, we will go the 2nd step.Actor/observer differenc e tendency to see other people's behavior as caused by personality but to see one's own behavior as caused by situations Because of perceptual salience – notice other's behavior more than the situation. notice our own situation more than our behavior. What is most salient to me? i don't always look inward. I look outward and therefore my situation more than myself. Because of information availability. I know more about myself so have more consistency and distinctiveness information about myself. and therefore EXTERNALLY ATTRIBUTE. Self-serving attribution endency to take credit for my success by internal attribution, but blame others or situation for failure. Really just want to maintain self-esteem by doing so. We also just want others to think well of us. Due to the type of information available to people, I know i didn't score well for the test because it is unfair. I know i am smart. but my teacher thinks i am stupid. Different info. Defensive attributions explanations fo r behavior that defend us from vulnerability and mortality feelings believing that bad things only happen to bad people. or terminal diseases happen to us and we take steps to deny the fact. Belief in a just world) In countries with extreme rich and poor, just world beliefs are more common, compared with countries with more evenly distributed wealth. Self-serving bias prevalent in many western societies but less in Asian cultures where values of modesty and harmony is valued (china, japan etc) Individualistic cultures – look outside themselves to explain failure Collectivistic cultures – look inward to explain failure, garnering sympathy and compassion which strengthens harmony between people CHAPTER 5 Self-concept knowledge about who we are Self-awareness act of thinking about ourselvesCocktail party effect – in a crowded room yu catch someone say ur name with selective attention. after hearing own name in irrelevant stream, percentage of errors for the relevan t stream increased spotlight effect – mistaken impressino that ppl are noticing u actually only 23% Self-awareness and self-concept combine to create identity. As children, we have concrete self-concepts, referencing clear-cut observable characteristics like age, sex, hobbies. As adults, we emphasise psychological states and considerations of how others judge us Independent view of self Defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions.Interdependent view of self Defining oneself in terms of relationships with others and recognising that behavior is often determined by thought, feelings, and actions of others. Westerns take more to independent sense of self than Asian culture. Women have more relational interdependence – focusing more on relationships. More likely to discuss emotions than men Men have collective interdependence – focusing on memberships in larger groups. Like sports teams Self-awareness theory when people focus atte ntion on themselves, they evaluate and compare behavior to internal standards and values. hen people are self-aware, it reminds them of a sense of right and wrong and are less likely to err. East asians likely to have outside perspective of self (how others see them). Western have insider perspective (individualistic) Causal theories Theories about what influences feelings and behavior like â€Å"absence makes the heart grow fonder† Reason-generated attitude change attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for your attitudes. you assume your attitude matches the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise. break up because she chews gum loudly.Self-perception theory when our feelings and attitudes are uncertain, we infer the feelings by observing our behavior and the situation which it occurs. We infer only when we are not sure how we feel. And we judge whether our behavior really reflects how we feel or because it is the situation that made us act that w ay. not sure if i like classical music. but i listen to 92. 4 willingly. therefore i must love classical music. if gf listens to korean song and not me who tuned in, then i am unlikely to conclude that i listen because i like it Intrinsic motivation esire to engage in an activity because i enjoy it Extrinsic motivation desire to engage because of the rewards that come with it According to self-perception theory, If i were initially intrinsically motivated, but was instead paid to do it, the motivation will slowly change to extrinsic and i'll eventually lose pure interest for it. Over-justification effect results when i view my behavior as caused by extrinsic reasons, making me underestimate the extent to which the behavior is caused by intrinsic reasons Task-contingent rewards rewards for doing a task regardless of resultsPerformance-contingent rewards rewards from how well i perform a task 2 factor theory of emotion idea that emotional experience is a result of a 2-step self-percep tion process in which i first experience physiological arousal then seek an appropriate explanation for it. Misattribution of arousal making mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do standing on a swaying bridge and receiving a request to do a survey from a chiobu. your initial heightened heart rate due to the scary bridge is misattributed to u liking the girl Appraisal theories of emotionYour emotion depends on the way you interpret or explain the event, in the absense of psychological arousal. You want to go med sch. your friend gets in instead. you feel threatened and therefore moody. Fixed mindset we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change. fixed intelligence, athletic ability etc. likely to give up after setbacks. less likely to hone skills Growth mindset abilities are malleable qualities that can cultivate and grow. view setbacks as opportunities to improve Social comparison theory learn about own abilities and attitudes by comparing wit h othersDownward social comparison compare with someone lousier to feel better about myself Upward social comparison compare with someone better to have a goal to strive towards Social tuning groups of friends or people adopting similar attitudes through social influence Self-regulatory resource model stats that we must have plenty of energy when we are trying to control our actions. Suggests that the level of glucose in the bloodstream is spent when we exert self-control Impression management attempt to get others to see me the way i want to be seen. FacebookIngratiation using flattery or praise to make myself likeable to another, often a higher-status person (ANGKAT) self-handicapping people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, people avoid blaming themselves. Self-handicap by creating obstacles that reduce the likelihood they will succeed on a task. So if they fail, they blame on these obstacles rather than lack of ability. Includes drugs, a lcohol, failure to prepare Also by devising ready-made excuses in case they fail. Test anxiety, moods, symptoms, events from the past.We may evntually believe the excuses and exert less effort in future. People dislike others who self-handicap so they run the risk of informal sanctions. Eastern cultures like to save face more than western cultures, and have a more independent view of themselves than ang moh. CHAPTER 6 Cognitive dissonance the feeling of discomfort when you hold 2 or more inconsistent cognitions. caused by an action that is usually against one's usual, typically positive self-conception reduce dissonance by: changing behavior (stop smoking) changing dissonant cognitions (nah.. igs don't cause cancer) adding new cognitions (my grandpa smoke so much also never kena) people experiencing dissonance deny or distort reality to reduce it. Impact bias when people think of how they will react to future negative events, they overestimate the intensity of duration of their nega tive emotional reactions. Like overestimate emo-time when u break up The need to maintain self-esteem leads us to rationalise our behavior, which may not be rational thinking. Post-decisional dissonance when after making a decision you believe more in your choice and devaluate the rejected choice. he more important and more difficult to revoke the decision, the greater the dissonance. eg which car to by vs which cup irrevocability of a decision always increases dissonance and the motivation to reduce it. lowballing technique – initially quote low price, after customer decides to buy, say it was an error, actual price is higher. frequently customer will still buy. Because there is already a commitment of sorts. Decision to behave immorally Cheating – if u didnt see the chem paper you wouldn't have gotten into SMU Dissonance theory says i'll justify the action by minimising the negative aspects of the action i chose. . e. changing my attitude about cheating that it is no t so bad and everyone does it. In terms of personal values: the cheat and non-cheat initially starts at the same attitude. after one decides their path, the attitude towards cheating diverges sharply as a consequence of actions, moving towards one extreme (from its not bad vs it's not good diverge to cheating is no big deal. vs expel cheaters! ) Justification of effort tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they worked hard to attain. the tougher the initiation, the more we like the group (go OCS i like it so much)External justification reason for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual, in order to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment friend altered an ugly dress so now cannot return. since she already changed it, just tell her u like it. you don't want to hurt her by saying it sucks. Internal justification reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself like attitude. when cannot find external justification, will attempt to find internal. if the same friend is very rich and buying another dress isn't a problem, your external justifying reasons for lying to her is minimal. o you experience internal justification, by noticing some good things about the dress. eventually, you will like the fugly dress. This is counterattitudinal advocacy – occurs when we claim to have an opinion that differs from our true beliefs. when we do this with little external justification, and more internal justific, we will believe it's more and more like the lie we told. Hypocrisy induction arousal of dissonance by making statements that counter peoples' behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavor.This purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior counterattitudinal advocacy example. people who are made mindful of their hypocrisy between the statements they make and their initial beliefs begin to practice what they preach. Insufficien t punishment dissonance when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in devaluing the forbidden activity or object. insufficient punishment causes insufficient external justification, which makes one internally justify. eg. child bully. f punishment is harsh – sufficient external justification (i dont beat him cos teacher will cane). if punishment is mild, (why am i not beating him up? ) the bully will refrain from beating, even though he wants to. but he lacks complete justification for not beating, so he will reduce dissonance by convincing himself that he does not really want to beat up the guy. Small reward or mild punishment leads to internal justification -; self-persuasion -; lasting change. Self-persuasion long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification. ore permanent that direct attempts at persuasion by others because persuasion takes place internally . Ben franklin effect when we do a favour for a person we do not like, we will end up liking the person more. How do u hate your victims? convince yourself that the ppl u killed are less than human convince yourself they deserved to be hurt similar to nazis convincing themselves jews are subhuman Dissonance-reducing behavior less prevalent in collectivist cultures on the surface. Also may be that self-justification occurs in collectivistic societies in more communal ways. In japan, dissonance reduced after saying a boring task is interesting.In addition, if a jap observes a person he knows and likes saying the that the boring task is interesting, he himself will experience dissonance and change attitudes. CHAPTER 8 Conformity Changing one's behavior due to real or imagined influences of others Informational social influence influence of others leads us to conform because we see them as a source of info to guide behavior. We believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situati on is more accurate than ours, and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. women learning what an attractive body is from family, friends and media. en's body must be muscular (mens health, gyms etc) Private acceptance conform to behavior of others because genuinely believe that the other people are correct Public compliance conform to behavior of others without necessarily believing what they do is correct. to avoid looking silly or foolish. By wanting to get things right, you are more susceptible to informational social influence. In low importance conditions – conform to others less than in high importance conditions. (same answers for CAT and AS midterm) The more important the decision is to us, the more we will rely on others for information.Contagion rapid spread of emotions or behavior through a crowd eg mass panic of war of the worlds Mass psychogenic illness occurrence of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause in a group of people. begins with one or a few reporting physical symptoms, then others who observe these sick people were more likely to fall sick too. Mass media also disseminates mass psychogenic illness quickly. maybe H1N1 swine flu n sars. Ambiguous situation The more uncertain you are, the more u will rely on others. Crisis situation we see how others respond and do likewise (stampedes) When others are experts he more expertise a person has, he will be a valuable guide in an ambiguous situation Social norms rules for acceptable behaviors, values and beliefs deviants can be ridiculed, punished, rejected Normative social influence when influence of others leads us to conform to be liked and accepted by them. (all the 369 tattoos on forehead) results in public compliance and not necessarily private acceptance we tend to wear what's stylish but do u really believe that mat caps are that nice? women's attempts to create ideal body that u learnt through informational influence. men go gym Asch line (long line study) onformity occured because of fear of being the lone dissenter we conform for normative reasons because we dont want social disapproval even from complete strangers. also, we feel discomfort and tension when we stand up for beliefs and go against the group What if you resist normative social influence? group will try to align you with their beliefs by increased communication through teasing and long discussions if all fails, then start to say negative things and withdraw from me Cultural definitions of attractive body changes throughout the years. last time, fat girl was attractive, because looks healthy and fertile.Today, models all so skinny. Jap culture places great emphasis on conformity than american culture. Normative pressure to be skinny is more for Japs than americans Social impact theory likelihood that i respond to social influence by others depends on strength: how important to me is the group? immediacy: how close is the group to me in space and time during the at tempt to influence me? number: how many people in the group? conformity will increase as the factors above increase. Group size and social impact Conformity increased when no of group increased. beyond 3 people, conformity does not increase much.Groups we identify strongly with and we like will exert more normative influence on us. Conforming to a group earns idiosyncracy credits (can occasionally deviate from group norms without sanction) When no one else in the group believes the same as you, normative social influence is the highest. You tend to conform to them. But if you have 1 ally, pressure to conform greatly decreases. (12 angry men example) when group's culture is collectivistic, people are highly conforming because of factors like cooperation and loyalty. Conformity in collective cultures is a valued trait. but in western it is a negative trait.Hunting/Fishing culture (western) values assertiveness and independence. Agriculture (eastern) values value cooperative, conformit y. Minority influence case where minority of group members influence behavior of majority. through consistency. keep expressing the same view, and different members of minority must agree with one another. majority eventually takes notice. minorities exert influence through informational means, not normative. Majorities obtain public compliance through normative influence Minorities obtain private acceptance through informational influence. 12 angry men best example. Injunctive norms eoples' perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved by others. Motivate behavior through punishment or rewards. Littering is wrong. â€Å"DO NOT LITTER† more powerful in the face but promote normative conformity. (public compliance) Descriptive norms perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether behavior is approved by others or not. Motivate behavior by informing people about what is effective or adaptive behavior. Littering is wrong (injuncti ve). There are times where people are likely to litter (Descriptive norms) â€Å"LITTERING IS NOT WHAT PEOPLE DO HERE†Less powerful in the face but promote informational influence. creates positive change. Boomerang effect by giving an â€Å"average† as a norm, people who usually did less than the average might end up increasing the activity to meet the â€Å"average†, thereby defeating the purpose of decreasing the undesirable behavior. For example alcohol drinking. â€Å"descriptive norm + injunctive norm† mixed messages will have a positive effect on cutting down undesirable behavior. â€Å"you used this much energy. On average, households use x amount of energy a day (descriptive – what society does).You used X+2 energy >:( (the face showing disapproval is injunctive – what is viewed as wrong. ) Obedience to authority behavior of soldiers made killing seem like the right thing (informational influence) and soldiers wanted to avoid rejec tion from others (normative influence) my lai village massacre. Milgram's studies Authority say â€Å"it is essential you continue† difficult to say no to insistent authority Normative influence – acting on their influence in order to be accepted by others When the authority left the room lack of informational influence When authority was replaced by a regular person he lacks expertise, no incentive to followImportance of authority figures when 2 authority figures disagreed about whether to continue the study, thereby creating ambigous definition of the situation, 100% of the participants stopped conforming. Other reasons we obey Conforming to the wrong norm Once u follow one norm, it is hard to switch midstream. (slowly realising that delivering electric shocks was not good but still continued) Difficult to abandon the â€Å"obey authority† norm in Milgram because: experiment was fast-paced, preventing reflection on the situation. of self-justification. Initial agreement to do the test created internal pressure to obey subsequently.As participants delivered each shock, they justified in their heads, and each successive ladder made it hard to decide when to stop (215 and 230 volts not much different) of loss of personal responsibility. Experimenters are responsible for end results, and i am â€Å"just following orders† Unethical studies have Deception hiding true purpose of the study No true informed consent not told of the full details of study Psychological distress Not told they had right to withdraw Inflicted insight when the study ended, some learnt things about themselves that they didnt agree to beforehand (like obey orders to hurt someone)

A Perfect Research Paper Introduction

A Perfect Research Paper Introduction A Perfect Research Paper Introduction Introduction is always an important part of a written assignment, as it presents thoughts to the reader and allows making up his mind whether to go on further. Moreover, it is very important if you are completing a research paper, as it may contain complex information and the topic may seem difficult to understand. In such cases, your introduction will serve as an outline and contain information about the research itself. Unfortunately, many students find it difficult to limit the whole paper to a couple paragraphs and don’t know where to start. Following our simple tips and advice will definitely help you to complete an introduction without any efforts. Give information on the topic It is not a secret that every introduction should start with an engaging and interesting overview of the topic, as the readers should know what to expect. That is why the best way to start your introduction is to state the topic. You should also need to add various matters on the subject and state your personal opinion. It will definitely be intriguing and make the audience to go on reading. The advice here is very simple: begin with a general information on the topic and then narrow it to several aspects, which you want to highlight. This section doesn’t require a deep analysis of the subject but you still shouldn’t sound shallow. If your topic is complicated and contains terms that are difficult to comprehend, try to explain it in simple words not to bore the audience. Provide a literature overview Any research paper should be based on credible and relevant sources, so you need to make a thorough research and analyze only trustful literature. Every introduction should contain a brief overview of the literature, used during your studies. In addition, you can include quotes of various authors or philosophers to back your ideas and support your point of view. Provide the background When you start your research paper, you need to provide the rationale, which can be a perfect way to show your attitude to the subject and give readers a chance to ponder on the subject. Such background allows to reveal information on the topic and prove that your research is important for the society or the field of science. Provide a catchy thesis Your thesis statement links introduction conclusions and body paragraphs, so you need to be very attentive and thoughtful, when completing this section. Remember that your thesis should contain general information on the whole work and engage your views on the subject to help the audience to understand your ideas. It can be called the business card of your whole work, so don’t forget to include general information on the subject and reflect all the important issues. In addition, remember to stay clear and engaging to catch interest of the readers. Don’t forget about the outline When you have almost completed your introduction, it is time to provide the structure of the whole work. Not every professor requires to include an outline to your introduction but you still need to be ready for such a demand. In this case, you need to write a short paragraph, which contains three or four sentences about the main goal and content of the whole research paper. If you lack ideas, you can find introduction examples online to get fresh ideas. Require assistance? If you follow all the instructions, writing a proper introduction for your research paper may not seem challenging at all. However, even the best students may face various complications and it is very difficult to choose a proper topic and deliver everything on time. That is why they often wonder how to make introduction perfect and avoid sleepless nights and lots of stress. There is a great way out, which won’t require much of your time and efforts: contacting a professional writing company. With the assistance of professional writers, you won’t have to spend long hours, looking for a proper introduction online or trying to complete it on your own. So if you ask us ‘can you complete my research paper?’ we will definitely say ‘yes’! Our skilled writers will provide your with a written from scratch content and you will always be sure that it will contain all of your requirements. Moreover, you will always meet the deadlines, avoiding stress and anxiety. If you still have doubts, just make a request and see yourself how simple and fun your student years can be!

Common Academic Phrases to Use in Your Essay

Common Academic Phrases to Use in Your Essay Quality Essay Writing: Ten Scholarly Phrases to Employ while Writing Essays Easygoing and conversational expressions have no place in scholastic papers. Therell be no LOLs, no LMFAO, and positively no OMGs. In any case, did you know there is a mess of different expressions which probably wont be so evident or striking? Shouldnt something be said about those individuals that believe its alright to compose you in an article? This ought to be maintained a strategic distance from with a reasonable option being, maybe, one. Another precedent could be an understudy who befuddles be that as it may with even though. Did you know the distinction? We use notwithstanding toward the start of another sentence, with a comma after it. Then again, even though can be utilized toward the start or amidst a sentence, and it doesnt have a comma after that. In this way, to enable you to locate the correct dimension of custom in your expositions, we have assembled this rundown of 10 scholastic expressions you can use in your article composing. This is in no way, shape or forms a comprehensive rundown. However, these are only a couple of the scholarly expressions that can enhance your exposition composing abilities. 1.  Ã‚   Also; moreover; likewise†¦ The stream of your article is critical. This kind of scholarly expression is ideal for growing or adding to a point youve officially made without hindering or halting the stream by and large. 2.  Ã‚   Eventually; to simply put it†¦ Once more, these are fantastic scholastic expressions to enhance the coherence of your paper composing. For this situation, the above terms ought to be utilized to clarify a point youve effectively made in a somewhat extraordinary manner. Try not to utilize it to rehash yourself, but instead to expound on a specific point that needs further clarification. Or on the other hand to concisely round up what just preceded. 3.Consequently; on the other hand; despite what might be expected; then again†¦ Finding a consistent technique for presenting an elective viewpoint or hypothesis can be diligent work, yet these terms and expressions can enable you to present the opposite side of the contention. 4.  Ã‚   As indicated by X; X expressed that; alluding to the perspectives of X†¦ Presenting the perspectives of subject specialists is an urgent piece of article composing. Counting a statement that normally fits into your work can be a touch of battle, yet these scholastic expressions give an extraordinary path in. The key with statements is lucidity. Leave the peruser with no space for perplexity; it ought to be evident that a statement is a statement. Therefore, you may likewise prefer to summarize – ensure you credit the source, however. Hence, you may jump at the chance to state, As Einstein regularly repeated, the hypothesis of. instead of giving a sectioned direct statement. Also, it is essential to ensure that one references effectively as well when utilizing cites or summarizing another persons words. 5.  Ã‚   Just as; alongside; combined with Take care when utilizing these joining scholarly expressions, as they dont work similarly as the combination and with regards to the subject-action word assertion. Therefore, they do generally have a similar capacity and are fine when utilized sparingly. 6.  Ã‚   Initially, besides, thirdly†¦ In case youre attempting to structure a contention without your exposition getting to be dreary, this is a very powerful strategy for introducing the realities. Try not to be excessively unbending and feel you need to number each point, yet using this framework can be a decent method to get a contention off the ground. 7.  Ã‚   In perspective of; in light of†¦ These are the kinds of expressions you should use to add a stipulation to contention or recognize reservations. Either can be utilized when a bit of proof reveals new insight into a contention. 8.  Ã‚   For example; to give an outline of†¦ Scholastic articles that get good grades back up each point. Utilizing for instance each time will wind up dull for the author and the peruser, so here are two or three scholarly expressions you can use to state a similar thing. 9.  Ã‚   Powerful; convincing†¦ While finishing up your paper, words like these can enable you to outline your contention and clarify which parts you find generally persuading. 10.  Ã‚     This way; this recommends; evidently; the outcome is†¦ When youre clarifying the importance of the consequences of a bit of research, these expressions give the ideal lead up to your clarification.

How to Create User Control Components in VB.NET

How to Create User Control Components in VB.NET A user control is just like the Visual Basic supplied controls, such as TextBox or Button, but you can make your own control do whatever you like with your own code. Think of them like bundles of standard controls with custom methods and properties. Whenever you have a group of controls that youre likely to use in more than one place, consider a user control. Note that you can also create web user controls but theyre not the same as web custom controls; this article only covers the creation of user controls for Windows. In more detail, a user control is a VB.NET class. The class Inherits from the Framework UserControl class. The UserControl class gives your control the base functions it needs so it can be treated like the built-in controls. A user control also has a visual interface, much like a VB.NET form that you design in VB.NET. Four Function Calculator Control To demonstrate a user control, were going to create our own four function calculator control (this is what it looks like) that you can drag and drop right onto a form in your project. If you have a financial application where it would be handy to have a custom calculator available, you can add your own code to this one and use it just like a Toolbox control in your projects. With your own calculator control, you could add keys that automatically input a company standard such as a required rate of return, or add the corporate logo to the calculator. Creating a User Control The first step in creating a user control is to program a standard Windows application that does what you need. Although there are some extra steps, its still often easier to program your control first as a standard Windows application than as a user control, since its easier to debug. Once you have your application working, you can copy the code to a user control class and build the user control as a DLL file. These basic steps are the same in all versions since the underlying technology is the same, but the exact procedure is a little different between VB.NET versions. Using Different VB.NET Versions You will have a small problem if you have the VB.NET 1.X Standard Edition. User controls have to be created as DLLs to be used in other projects and this version wont create DLL libraries out of the box. Its a lot more trouble, but you can use the techniques described in this article to learn how to get around this problem. With the more advanced versions, create a new Windows Control Library. Follow this link to see the VB.NET 1.X dialog. From the VB main menu, click Project, then Add User Control. This gives you a form design environment almost identical to the one you use for building standard Windows applications. Add the components and code for your control and customize the properties you need. You can copy and paste from your debugged standard Windows app. In fact, the code for the CalcPad control (more on this below) was copied with no changes.Build your solution to get the DLL file for your control. Remember to change the Configuration to Release before the Build for production use.To move the control to the Toolbox, right-click the Toolbox and select Add/Remove Items...Using the .NET Framework Components tab, browse to the DLL for your component (probably in the bin folder of the Windows Control Library solution). Click Open when the DLL file is selected to move the control to the Toolbox, then choose OK. See this screenshot of CalcPad in the VB.NET 1.1 Toolbox. To check out your work, you can close the Windows Control Library solution and open a standard Windows Application solution. Drag and drop your new CalcPad control and run the project. This illustration shows that it behaves just like the Windows calculator, but its a control in your project. This isnt everything you need to do to move the control into production for other people, but thats another subject! The procedure for building a user control in VB.NET 2005 is almost identical to 1.X. The biggest difference is that instead of right-clicking on the Toolbox and selecting Add/Remove Items, the control is added by selecting Choose Toolbox Items from the Tools menu; the rest of the process is the same. Heres the same component (actually, converted directly from VB.NET 1.1 using the Visual Studio conversion wizard) running in a form in VB.NET 2005. Again, moving this control into production can be an involved process. Usually, that means installing it in the GAC, or Global Assembly Cache.

Critically evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of 'universal' Essay

Critically evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of 'universal' and 'contingent' approaches to human resource strategy. Give examples to illustrate your answer - Essay Example ies are facing increasingly complex and dynamic business environment necessitating change in their ways they operate in harnessing their resources including human resources. The main objective behind HRM is to ensure organizational success through its people (Armstrong, 2006). The paper aims at exploring the advantages and disadvantages of universal and contingent approaches to human resource strategies that are currently practiced. Caldwell (2004) argues that HRM is concerned with several policy goals to be listed as: managing people as assets to build competitive strength; aligning corporate strategy and HRM policies; creating a flexible organisation responsive to external environment; to promote more cohesive team working; creating a strong customer orientation; empowerment to workforce for self-management and learning; institute proper reward system to develop a performance-driven environment; enhancing employee commitment within the organisation. Companies attempt to achieve these goals either through universal also known as best-practice approach to human resource strategies or take a diversion from it and deploy contingent approach to human resource strategies depending upon the need or the type of business they operate. Universal or the best practice approach is based on the basic premise that adopting certain proven HRM practices will inevitably lead to superior organizational performance. For example, most firms in 1960s and 1970s and a huge proportion even today adopt a sophisticated selection and recruitment processes so that the best from the available lot is selected. Induction programme is also sophisticated providing necessary training to the recruits so that they can accomplish the task given to them. The appraisal system is quite coherent so that none has reason to complain. Workforce skills are allowed to develop such that they attain flexibility. Comprehensive and frequent communication to workforce is maintained. All employment terms and

Economic Impacts of the Multi Fibre Agreement expiration in the EU Essay

Economic Impacts of the Multi Fibre Agreement expiration in the EU Countries - Essay Example The essay focuses on the economic side of the MFA expiration, while examining the importance of international trade and the use of protectionist policies in a globalized world. The concept of aggregate demand and supply is used to measure the impact of the changes on products and factors in the textile market. The essay also considers European protectionist measures that can be taken in the nearest future. The essay presents different cases, where other forms of protectionism have been created in developed countries especially in the European Union and the gap between beneficiary and non beneficiary developing countries of the opening of the international textile market. The WTO admitted that the MFA was a special regime outside the GATT rules and that WTO members have committed to remove those quotas by 1st January 2005. Nevertheless, the MFA was not negative for all countries. The US, for example, imposed no restrictions on imports from the poorest countries like Bangladesh, benefiting to a massive expansion of the textile industry there. Since the end of the quotas, the gap between developed and developing countries is not very clear. When some could believe that the dismantling of the MFA could have been a relief and a real opportunity for Southern countries, it appears that the situation is much more complex. There is one main reason for the difficulties facing the textile market within developing countries: competition. Each of developing countries wants to be part of this profitable business. ... ist policies and we will use the concept of aggregate demand and supply to measure the impact of the changes on products and factors in the textile market. I. The consequences of the end of the MFA. 1. Among developing countries. Since the end of the quotas, the gap between developed and developing countries is not very clear. When some could believe that the dismantling of the MFA could have been a relief and a real opportunity for Southern countries, it appears that the situation is much more complex. There is one main reason for the difficulties facing the textile market within developing countries: competition. As the international market is now wide open, each developing countries wants to be part of this profitable business. However, not all of them can compete with giants like China. According to apublication from the OECD "A New World Map in Textiles and Clothing" when the MFA was still in place, smaller developing countries took advantage of the quotas because this system penalised the more competitive suppliers. When the quotas from a country like China was reached, importers turned to less competitive suppliers located in countries that had spare export quotas and whose only advantage was low wage. Today, the less competitive developing countries re not called as back up because countries willing to import textile can only be supplied by one and only exporter, the most competitive: China. As we stated before, the main issue here is competition. What separates China from other developing countries id not only the competitive advantages of low wages. In "China Shows the Way in a Quota-Free Market", Linda Lim presents six competitive advantages that China has over the other developing countries: First, Chinese workers are much more productive, probably

"why college education is important to me" Essay

"why college education is important to me" - Essay Example College education is important to me because it facilitates the acquisition of life skills that are gained in the common units. For instance, it is mandatory for students to take social skills classes and critical thinking subjects that help them to develop ideas needed to make life decisions. This improves the self-discipline, study behaviors and career insights as the graduates are focused to achieve their intentions (Gardner 2). Having life skills is essential for me to ensure that I am always positive when attending to different affairs. College education is also important to me because it was my dream to attain a professional degree that will enable me to secure a decent job. It is apparent that college graduates earn good salaries compared to high school graduates and unskilled workers (McMahon16). This will be enough to save for future plans and emergencies that might arise as I seek other avenues of having my own firm. I think acquiring a college education equips one with interpersonal skills of interacting with people from distant regions and backgrounds. Professionals are exposed to a variety of experiences and knowledge in their line of duties and interactions. It is also important for me to acquire a college education in order to be competitive in the global job market. Globalization has facilitated the hiring of labor from across the world and I would wish to be among the skilled workers sought by high performing companies (Bowen 62). I aspire to be an all-rounder employee who understands the requirements of different clients. Attaining this experience of adapting to different organizations requires a person who is capable of accepting people from different diversities. Colleges admit students who observe separate cultures where the sharing of ideas and cultural incorporation take place (Bowen 62). I

Macroeconomy of Poland Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macroeconomy of Poland - Research Paper Example his country has established stable trade relations with the rest of the world, where it cooperates with other countries such as China, Japan, and Canada who are its major trade partners. This country provides Canada with the second largest market in central and eastern Europe, where in 2005, Canada exported a total of $266.7 million worth of goods to Poland and in turn imported goods worth 532.6 million (Krugman, 34). These countries and other European countries have established many investments in Poland, in the sectors of transportation, technology, and security. However, there are various challenges that face this country, regarding its economy. Among those challenges is the aligning of the countries fiscal and monetary policies, towards adopting the euro. Another challenge facing the country is its labor force, where the country has a high rate of unemployment and low labor participation in the economic growth (Batara, 25). The country also suffers from a poor business environmen t, where the economy is dominated by major public sector investments, whose failure to privatize has hindered the favorable local and foreign investments into the country. Paramount of these challenges is the poor infrastructure for the agricultural sector, which this country possesses. The sector lacks ample investment, has surplus of labor and has a shortage of small firm’s investment (Schwab, 60). The banking system in Poland is large, ranked as the biggest in east and central Europe (Batara, 28). The sector is highly developed, an aspect that has been contributed by the privatization of some banks by the government in the period 1992-1997. During this period, the government also restructured other banks and added more capital and infrastructure to them while at the same time putting...This paper aims to present a comprehensive modern overview of the economy of Poland, in order to determine macroeconomic tendencies in the country and to outline its economic perspectives. Until the 1990s, the economy of this country was centralized. However, from then on, the government has been trying to decentralize this and adopt a free market system of economy, which has served to steer the economic growth of this country to the present state. This notwithstanding, there are many other sectors of the economy which have remained resistant to change, which is desirable for a free market economy The industrial base of this country is centralized around petrochemicals, machinery, fertilizers, electronics, car manufacture, and shipbuilding. This country established stable trade relations with the rest of the world, where it cooperates with other countries such as China, Japan, and Canada who are its major trade partners. The banking system in Poland is large, ranked as the biggest in east and central Europe. The sector is highly developed, an aspect that has been contributed by the privatization of some banks. The government also restructured other banks and added more capital and infrastructure to them while at the same time putting in place policy reforms that greatly supported this sector. The future of the economy of Poland is promising. The county is constantly establishing vital political and economic relations with other countries to enhance its trade and investments, serving to spur the economic growth even further

The Theory of Conservative Crime Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Theory of Conservative Crime - Assignment Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that the theory of conservative crime states that committing a crime is an individual choice. In an article published in 2013, the case of a female teacher who committed the sexual offense with a 14-year-old in 2004 was made public majorly to highlight the decisions that were made in the court in regard to her case. The cause was presented in a conservative perspective majorly due to the fact that the article indicated the effects of her acts that led to her arrest such as lewd as well as the lascivious battery with the teenager. The female teacher, Mr. Debra Lafava was responsible for committing this crime. The free will of criminal offenders is usually a major issue; a person’s liberty to make certain personal decisions is a great determinant of whether or not they commit a crime. In some cases, individuals may make decisions and act according to their decisions in manners considered legally unethical. In additio n, the definition of criminal acts is considered broad. This is due to the fact that what is considered crime vary from one society to another. Crime entails myriad issues and is described differently from one place to another. Enforcement is pertinent in controlling crime owing to the fact it entails undertaking procedures, specifically geared towards preventing the occurrence of crime i.e. formulation and implementation of legal criminal prevention tools.

Macroeconomy of Poland Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macroeconomy of Poland - Research Paper Example his country has established stable trade relations with the rest of the world, where it cooperates with other countries such as China, Japan, and Canada who are its major trade partners. This country provides Canada with the second largest market in central and eastern Europe, where in 2005, Canada exported a total of $266.7 million worth of goods to Poland and in turn imported goods worth 532.6 million (Krugman, 34). These countries and other European countries have established many investments in Poland, in the sectors of transportation, technology, and security. However, there are various challenges that face this country, regarding its economy. Among those challenges is the aligning of the countries fiscal and monetary policies, towards adopting the euro. Another challenge facing the country is its labor force, where the country has a high rate of unemployment and low labor participation in the economic growth (Batara, 25). The country also suffers from a poor business environmen t, where the economy is dominated by major public sector investments, whose failure to privatize has hindered the favorable local and foreign investments into the country. Paramount of these challenges is the poor infrastructure for the agricultural sector, which this country possesses. The sector lacks ample investment, has surplus of labor and has a shortage of small firm’s investment (Schwab, 60). The banking system in Poland is large, ranked as the biggest in east and central Europe (Batara, 28). The sector is highly developed, an aspect that has been contributed by the privatization of some banks by the government in the period 1992-1997. During this period, the government also restructured other banks and added more capital and infrastructure to them while at the same time putting...This paper aims to present a comprehensive modern overview of the economy of Poland, in order to determine macroeconomic tendencies in the country and to outline its economic perspectives. Until the 1990s, the economy of this country was centralized. However, from then on, the government has been trying to decentralize this and adopt a free market system of economy, which has served to steer the economic growth of this country to the present state. This notwithstanding, there are many other sectors of the economy which have remained resistant to change, which is desirable for a free market economy The industrial base of this country is centralized around petrochemicals, machinery, fertilizers, electronics, car manufacture, and shipbuilding. This country established stable trade relations with the rest of the world, where it cooperates with other countries such as China, Japan, and Canada who are its major trade partners. The banking system in Poland is large, ranked as the biggest in east and central Europe. The sector is highly developed, an aspect that has been contributed by the privatization of some banks. The government also restructured other banks and added more capital and infrastructure to them while at the same time putting in place policy reforms that greatly supported this sector. The future of the economy of Poland is promising. The county is constantly establishing vital political and economic relations with other countries to enhance its trade and investments, serving to spur the economic growth even further

Argumentive essay Write a 750-1,000 word essay on one of the topics

Argumentive Write a 750-1,000 word on one of the topics from pages 302-303 of Steps to Writing Well - Essay Example tudents have to become independent and are confronted with the problem of earning money to support themselves along with the problem of maintaining equilibrium between time for school and work. Although it looks like that working throughout high school is an objectionable idea, it could teach the students a lot regarding the real world and the obstacles it offers. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 1980, 40% of students were working. Today 80% of students are working 20-30 hours a week. As these results demonstrate, an ever increasing number of students work through high school and as a result, it is widely accepted by the world and moreover considered as a normal characteristic of adolescence (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2005). Schools have no problem with it, cities respect it and parents support it with a fact that it teaches kids the worth of dollar. Apart from earning an income; these students start to develop responsibility as an important trait in their personalities. Teenagers with a job develop effective communication skills and learn to balance their priorities at a young age. It not only adds another bonus to their resumes, it also gives them an opening opportunity into the working world. While working through high school at different jobs, students could pick up many expertises that they would otherwise not have learne d in school. Another advantage of working through high school is that a part time job at this stage helps the students discover their areas of interest, weaknesses and strengths. This benefits them a lot in choosing the right future career for themselves. With a stable income, students can learn about managing their money in responsible way and to maintain a balance between their expenditure and saving. Working through high school gives student a sense of independence and confidence. These children rise to be self- sufficient which is a vital quality in life as schooling lays the brickwork for upcoming profession where

Death Changes Essay Example for Free

Death Changes Essay Changes in Death Management Practices One of the first noted changes in the book regarding attitudes towards death can be seen with the advances in mass media. As Technology has advanced, so have the ways in which news is reported to the world. Radio, Television, and the Internet have given the public many ways of receiving information. When situations portray a perceived threat, people turn to mass media for information. The ability to access information regarding worldwide disasters, terrorism, and other acts of brutality make us feel like survivors of death. Because we are able to see and hear about things that we have no firsthand knowledge of, we feel like we are experiencing it to some degree. (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 6) During the Vietnam War, television gave people access to images of things that were happening half a world away. In no other time were daily doses of violence to this degree a part of everyday life. Media analyst George Gerbner observed that these depictions of death evoked a heightened sense of danger, insecurity, and mistrust which contributed to an â€Å"irrational dread of dying and thus to diminished vitality and self-direction in life† (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 8) Life expectancy and Mortality Rates have been affected by technology as well. In 1900, the average life expectancy was 47 years of age in the United States. As of 2005, the average life expectancy rose to 78 years of age. This rise can be attributed to epidemiologic transition which moves the largest number of deaths from the young to the old. In the early days people died from infection due to lack of medication and knowledge on how to treat and prevent. As this knowledge was gained, deaths tended to be from chronic disease processes that are common in the older population rather than young. In 1900, over half of deaths that occurred were to children under the age of 14. That number has decreased to less than 2% and this fact influences how we feel and think about death. (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 36) In the 1870’s, nine out of ten Americans over the age of 15 had lost a parent or a sibling. Because medicine and medical care was not advanced, mother’s died during child birth and/or babies were born still born due to lack of prenatal knowledge and care advancement. The family unit was very important and often people in this time period would display postmortem pictures of loved ones who had passed as a testament to this family unit and the common knowledge of their mortality. One other change that has taken place is death rituals. In the early 1900’s families were more likely to be multigenerational living in the same house. People tended to intermingle with other generations out of necessity. Families lived on large homesteads and it took everyone to make it work. Because of this, multiple generations were present at the death of older family members and rituals and traditions existed. In this day and age people are more mobile and on the move. It is harder to maintain close relationships with family when you don’t live in the same state, let alone city. People appear to be less affected by the death of an older relative when the closeness of the relationship has been lost due to sheer proximity. Several changes that can be discussed regarding children are their attitudes towards death, their functional ability to understand death, and their desensitization to violence regarding death. Children’s attitudes towards death are much different in this day and age from in the late 1800’s or early 1900’s. In that time, families tended to live together in extended family situations possibly on homesteads. There was less access to medical care and things were taken care of at home. Death was something that was seen as a natural part of the living process and happened more regularly because of the generations that cohabitated. In this day and age as generations tend to live separately, children are more sheltered from this and therefore tend to look at death as something that doesn’t directly affect them. Jean Piaget, a theorist in human development, did extensive study of children and divided them into approximate age groups and developmental periods. He theorized that we develop our knowledge based on things we already know. These stages are sensorimotor from birth to 2 years when children learn based on their senses and motor abilities and begin to develop the idea of object permanence where they understand an object is still present even when it can’t be seen. Preoperational from 2-7 years where they progress from egocentric thought where they look at things as if they are the center of the world to prelogical where they learn trial and error and can begin to understand other points of view. Concrete operational from 7-12 years where they are able to logically understand and organize information and begin to think forward and backward about experiences. And finally, Formal operational from 12 years and up where they can think hypothetically and abstractly about situations and begin to have an interest in ethical situations. . (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 2-53) Before these types of theorists existed, death was considered a natural part of the living experience and children just dealt with it like the rest of the family. Also in early years when children talked about death, it tended to be in the context of disease processes and accidents. As the culture has, advanced children are routinely exposed to things they weren’t before. If you ask, a child now days what things are that can cause death you may hear things like gunshot wounds and other traumatic experiences that can be linked to crime, violence they see on TV or video games or inner city experiences. In a cultural or historical sense differences in how dying is perceived can be from a cultural standpoint. Different religious and ethnical cultures have different practices and beliefs regarding death but as we have become more culturally competent society, the varying beliefs have become better understood. The physical cause of dying has changed simply by historical differences in living conditions. For example, in the Stone Age people were more likely to have died from trauma and animal attacks, whereas today dying from frailty, organ failure and dementia are more common. One change in regards to mortality and society where death is concerned can be related to education and training. For example, an earthquake in Japan in 1923 caused the death of 100,000 people. Today, because of advances in technology and safety we have ways to warn people of dangerous weather situations and have developed better safety practices that if followed can save many lives. . (DeSpelder, Strickland pg. 135-136) Change has also been seen in the conventional signs of death. Most deaths are determined by the absence of heartbeat and breathing. With the advances in technology and medicine, though, it is possible for mechanical ventilation and medications to artificially maintain these functions while the brain is termed dead. For this reason, the concept of brain death was created. Another innovation that has changed death is organ transplantation. Before this was discovered and perfected people had no choice but to die if they fell victim to an irreversible organ failure. Now, through organ donation and transplantation people can live long and productive lives if they can receive these lifesaving procedures. The final three changes that will be discussed are in regards to patients, staff, and institutions in the field of Health care. In 1900, about 80% of deaths in the United States took place in the home. As the invention of hospitals and other institutions took place, this shifted to the institutional setting with more people dying in hospital or nursing home setting. There is beginning to be a shift again however as hospice care becomes an option available to more and more people that allow them to stay in their homes around familiar surroundings instead of the sterile, non-personal setting of a hospital or institution. Another change that has taken place with regards to dying could be the rationing of resources. This will undoubtedly be getting even worse under Obamacare. Physicians used to be considered the gate keepers of what services and treatments were reasonably appropriate to which patients. As managed care comes more and more into the picture, this will change. Physicians will be paid a certain amount of money per month by insurance companies to manage the patients’ health. The less procedures, tests, and resources that are used the more money the physician will get to keep. This leads to the fear that rationing of resources or withholding of resources is a real possibility in order to keep from bankrupting doctors and clinics. Finally, palliative care, and end of life decisions are changing as well. There have been many advances with the advent of hospice and what can be done to allow a natural and peaceful death for those that are not interested in prolonging it. Undoubtedly, we will all die one day. There has been a shift in recent years from death being an almost taboo topic to one where people are taking control of their decisions. This is an area I am passionate about. You can take control of your end of life decisions by an advanced directive and informing your family members of your wishes. There are people who know they want every intervention possible done to keep them alive and there are those that are accepting of their own mortality, comfortable with their idea of what happens after death, and know that they want nothing heroic done to try and keep them on this earth if they cannot be an active participant.

Mind Body Relationship In Human Person Philosophy Essay

Mind Body Relationship In Human Person Philosophy Essay The mind-body problem has been a much discussed issue in the Philosophy of Mind. All those who undertake any study in consciousness, necessarily need to touch upon this subject. One of the unsettled puzzles is about whether consciousness is part of material or mental realm. It has challenged the scientists as well as philosophers to look for some solutions. They have proposed several theories to address the issue. Among several theories dualism and physicalism were the most discussed. There are some crucial questions regarding mind-body problem: such as; how do they interact, whether the mind and body differ not only in degree and nature but also in kind? The arrival of neuroscience with its several scientific experiments has radically challenged the understanding of relationship between mind and body and forced us to rethink our positions about it. Thus, there is a renewed vigour in studying about consciousness in modern times and it has thrown open several other ways of settling th is issue. This chapter will briefly discuss on how different philosophers perceived the relationship between mind and body in a person and critically analyse various theories of dualism and physicalism in detail and present their difficulties. The concluding part of the chapter will show the need to go beyond dualism and physicalism with the help of neuroscience. We begin our discussion with mind-body relationship in a person. 1.1 Mind-Body Relationship in a Person For many centuries, we have been trying to understand the mind-body relationship in a person. The difficulty behind explaining the relationship between mind-body in a person is that s/he is a dynamic entity.  [1]  Thus, one is in a continued mode of knowing oneself. There are several thinkers who hold the view that a person is composed of body and mind. At the same time there are also some thinkers who oppose this idea. Now we shall discuss the views of some philosophers. There are several ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle who expressed their views on mind-body relationship in a person. For Plato, human being is composed of body and soul. Body is nothing but a prison house into which his/her soul has been locked. His understanding of person is different from our understanding of human being.  [2]  For Plato, person belongs to intelligible world and human being belongs to sensible world. Secondly person can be transformed whereas human being cannot be because human being belongs to physical level of being.  [3]  Thus he says that a person, the subject of interest, is not a human being but rather a soul, an entity distinct from that of human being.  [4]  Here we can see a clear-cut distinction of soul and body in Platos thinking. Aristotle, on the contrary, saw the mind-body relationship from a completely different angle. He says that a person is a composite not of body and soul but of prime matter and the human soul which as a substantial form.  [5]  He does not perceive the distinction between mind and body; instead he makes the distinction between matter and form. Therefore, Aristotle understands body and soul as not of two complete beings in conflict with each other but complimenting each other because matter and form are inseparable in a primary substance. There are also modern philosophers like Hegel, Immanuel Kant and John Locke who understand the mind-body relationship quite differently. For Hegel, an individual is part of the larger life of the Mind. He says that, Mind or spirit, passes through dialectical stages of evolution, revealing itself as subjective mind, objective mind and absolute mind. The subjective mind expresses itself as soul, consciousness and spirit.  [6]  From the above statements it is very clear that he gives importance to mind alone. He has absorbed totally the body into mind; for he says, It (mind) embodies itself, creates a body for itself, and becomes a particular, individual soul.  [7]  Therefore what truly exists for him is mind and not body. However Immanuel Kant speaks about metaphysical dualism rather than substance dualism of the person. He sees person as a Transcendental Self because there is a level of self-awareness that is over and above the categories of normal philosophies. Human being is alone a rational being who has a will and a free choice of action. So Kant postulates person as a transcendental free being, an idea that the inner self is not bound by the laws of nature.  [8]  However, John Locke, being a modern philosopher understands human person as that of ancient philosophers. For him mind is the real person and body is only a possession.  [9]  He separates mind from body and shows that body is only a material reality. He says that, Every man has a property in his own person.   This no Body has any Right to but himself.  [10]  For him mind is the real person and in the real person the body aspect is integrated totally into it.  [11]   The philosophers have changed their focus in the recent years. They give more stress on the purpose of human life. They ask; what does it mean to be a human person? However, with the growing interest in neuroscience, the ontological question bounced back with new a quest. One of the forerunners and pioneers of this movement is Philip Clayton who brought back the same question with a new focus. Now we shall discus the extreme positions of mind-body relationship and their solutions. 1.2 Extreme Positions The Mind-Body relationship has been an unsettled question both for science and philosophy. It has been a herculean task for both scientists and philosophers, who were greatly involved in unlocking the issue of the relationship between mind and body. There are two sets of opposing ideologies proposed; namely dualism and physicalism. Most of the philosophers are divided on their opinions hence this issue seeks our utmost attentions. Here we shall examine these two positions in detail and see why we need to go beyond these divisions. As part of this session, 1.3 deals with substance dualism and property dualism and 1.4 tries to examine the critical appraisal of the mind body relationship. The second part begins in 1.5 which deals with physicalism. Let us begin with dualism. 1.3 Dualism Dualism simply means a condition of being double. It comes from the Latin word duo meaning two which denotes a state of two parts.  [12]  It was originally coined to highlight the co-eternal binary position; for example good and evil, body and mind, mental and material, dark and light etc. It is supported by several arguments.  [13]  In philosophy it is a world view that the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities, such as body and mind, the condition of being double or duality.  [14]  From the point of theology, it speaks about that human being having two basic natures, the physical and spiritual. There are two kinds of dualism- substance dualism and property dualism. 1.3.1 Substance Dualism The substance dualism sees mind and body as two distinct and separate substances.  [15]  Several philosophers like Plato, Thomas Aquinas and Renà © Descartes too held a similar view. They see mind as something that is diametrically opposing body. The attribute of body is extension but at the same time they see that the body is passive; whereas the mind is thinking, active and free. The two substances are absolutely distinct and mind is without extension. Those who hold dualism say that they have a clear and distinct idea of themselves in so far as they are only a thinking and un-extended thing.  [16]  The distinction between body as material and mind as immaterial substance becomes a crucial point of discussion in substance dualism because they differ not only in kind but also in nature and degree. However it is a compelling concept because it gives us a hope of personal survival after death and also many religions hold this theory very dear to them.  [17]  We can see th is distinction in Indian philosophy too. The Sankhaya philosophy holds that there are two entities; namely Purusha  [18]  and Prakrti  [19]  which are the two constitutive elements of the world. However dualism is more clearly and intelligibly spelled by the western thinkers. Now we shall discuss briefly about two predominant philosophers: Plato, from the ancient schools and Renà © Descartes, from the modern thinkers, who represent the rest of the dualistic thinkers of their time. 1.3.1.1 Platonic Dualism Platonic Dualism can be seen very clear in Phaedo, one of his dialogues. In the dialogue, Plato accepts the two ultimate principles; namely body and mind. Here his dualism is metaphysical in nature because he deals with immortality of mind or soul.  [20]  He calls mind as soul.  [21]  For him, the mind is immortal and body is mortal.  [22]  The mind is the one which differentiates the living from the dead. He sees the body as a prison in which the soul is confined. In the imprisoned life, the mind is compelled to investigate the truth by means of the organs of perception of the body. Forms are universals and represent the essences of sensible particulars. Plato says that we do not see reality as a whole. We perceive equal things, but not equality itself. We perceive beautiful things but not beauty itself. To have insights into the pure essences of things, the mind must struggle to disassociate itself from the body as far as possible and turn its attention towards the cont emplation of not only to intelligible things but also to invisible things. Plato defines death as the separation of soul and body, and the state of being dead as state in which soul and body exist separately from one another.  [23]  Thus for Plato, the dualism of mind and body are opposite in nature. He establishes the distinction of mind and body by establishing the distinction between the immortality of mind and mortality of body. He proves the immortality of soul through Argument from Opposites, Argument from Recollection and the Argument from Affinity.  [24]  These three arguments are keys to establish his dualism. Plato defends his immortality of soul from the Argument from Opposites. He says that things that have an opposite come to be from their opposite. For example, if something comes to be taller, it must come to be taller from having been shorter; if something comes to be heavier, it must come to be so by first having been lighter. These processes can go in either direction. Similarly he says that dying comes from living, living must come from dying. Thus, we must come to life again after we die. During the interim between death and rebirth the soul exists apart from the body and has the opportunity to glimpse the Forms unmingled with matter in their pure and undiluted fullness. Thus the cycle of life goes on. The second defence for his immortality of soul is the Argument from Recollection. For Plato, soul must exist prior to birth because we can recollect things that could not have been learned in this life. According to Plato, we recognize unequal things and strive for equality. To notice inequality, we must comprehend what equality is. In order to know what equality is, we must have the prior knowledge so that we can understand the form of equality. Hence, the soul must have existed prior to birth to the form of equality.  [25]   The third defence for his immortality of soul is the Argument from Affinity. Plato claims that composite things are more liable to be destroyed than things that are simple. The forms  [26]  are true unities and therefore least likely ever to be annihilated. Further Plato says that invisible things such as forms are not apt to be disintegrated, whereas visible things are susceptible to decay and corruption. Since the body is visible and composite, it is subjected to decomposition. As against to body, the soul is invisible part of forms and purifies itself by having no more association with the body than necessary. Since the invisible things are the durable things, the soul, being invisible, must outlast the body. Further, soul becomes form-like immortal and survives the death of the body.  [27]  Through these three arguments Plato proves the immortality of soul or mind whereby he makes the distinction between body and mind; thus he proves the dualism. However Platos arguments are highly challenged even by his own disciple Aristotle. Firstly, the Argument from Opposites applies only to things that have an opposite and, as Aristotle notes, substances have no contraries.  [28]  Further, even if life comes from what is itself not alive, it does not follow that the living human comes from the union of a dead (i.e. separated) soul and a body. The principle that everything comes to be from its opposite via a two-directional process cannot hold up to critical scrutiny. Secondly, one becomes older from having been younger, there is no corresponding reverse process leading the older to become younger. If aging is a uni-directional process, perhaps dying is as well. The Arguments from Recollection and Affinity, on the other hand, presuppose the existence of forms and are therefore no more secure than the forms themselves. Thus these criticisms show that we cannot simply take the prior existence of soul as it is true. Therefore Platos und erstanding is more of metaphysical and bit of vague because there are several unanswered questions like things which have two different natures interact. At the same time we acknowledge, he has brought certain clarity in understanding dualism with clear proofs. Now we shall discuss the dualism proposed by Descartes. 1.3.1.2 Cartesian Dualism. Renà © Descartes is one of the modern Philosophers who has extensively dealt with dualism. For Descartes, body and mind are distinct substances and the immaterial mind is somehow associated with the material body.  [29]  Substance dualism gets more predominance in Cartesian dualism.  [30]  He says substance dualism goes along with the view that the identity of a person over time is constituted by the identity overtime of this substance, and in versions of the doctrine that countenance life after death, it is survival of this substance, often called soul perhaps along with certain memory and psychological continuities, that constitutes the survival of the person.  [31]  The idea that there is a fundamental difference in kind between the mind and body can be spelled out in two broadly different ways.  [32]  Descartes held that minds and bodies are substances of distinct kind that, in the case of living human beings, happen to be intimately related.  [33]  The disti nction between the body and mind is: the body is spacial, public and has material qualities; and mind is non-spacial, private and has distinctively mental qualities. By spacial, he means that it occupies some space and time for its existence. It is public which means it is visible and we can experience it. When he says that the body has material qualities, he means that it has several qualities by which the substance expresses itself and reveals it to others and through which we come to know the things.  [34]  Firstly, in contrast to body, the mind occupies no space therefore it can be anywhere at any time. In short it is beyond space and time. Secondly it possesses mental qualities of life feeling, perceiving, experience joys and sorrows of life etc. Thirdly the mind is private because we cannot perceive it.  [35]  Descartes believes that the world is made up of substances. A substance is not a thing as we think like water or coal, or paint. For Descartes substance is an in dividual thing or an entity. He says that substances are different; they are complex. He gives importance to human being and his/her rationality. He claimed that, human rationality could not be a physical process.  [36]   The dualism of Descartes sounds good; however, there are certain conceptual difficulties and seemingly insurmountable problems. One of the crucial issues is the interaction of mind-body which is totally opposing each other in nature and kind. If minds are as distinct from material things as Descartes claims, it seems at least paradoxical: how can then the two sorts of substances interact. In this case property dualism seems to solve some of the problems which substance dualism cannot. 1.3.2 Property Dualism Property dualism maintains that mind is not only one kind of physical substance, having physical or behavioral-material-functional properties but also nonphysical behaviorally-materially-functionally in-eliminable and irreducible properties.  [37]  The advantage of property dualism over substance dualism is that it avoids the casual interaction problem because this theory has no need to countenance causal interaction between material and immaterial or spatial and non-spatial substance, since it admits only that there is only material substance.  [38]  It also need not appeal to Gods divine abilities in order to account for mind-body interaction or the objectivity of the perceived world. It has an edge over materialism that it provides for the intuitive distinction between body and mind by positing a difference in their properties, and especially in the metaphysical categories of their properties. Property dualism holds that without both properties, we cannot satisfactorily ex plain the psychological phenomena. The in-eliminable and irreducible properties are said to be essential to mind because they are responsible for experience, feeling, object directionality and intentionality of psychological states.  [39]  This property dualism could be understood in three ways; namely Theory of Attribute, Anomalous Monism and Non-reductive materialism. 1.3.2.1 Theory of Attribute The first way of understanding the property dualism is through Spinozas theory of attribute. Attributes are part of Spinozas metaphysics.  [40]  For Spinoza God is the only Substance since Gods essence involves existence. He says that, God exists and, moreover, only God can fulfill the conditions for substance, therefore there can be only one substance.  [41]  It is a mistake to assert that mind and body as substances because they are not fully self-subsistent, but are dependent modes or manifestations of God. For him, A true substance must be that which contains within itself, as part of its essence, the complete explanation of its nature and existence.  [42]  This God has infinite attributes. But human being can know only two attributes; they are namely thought and extension. By attribute what Spinoza understands is that the intellect perceives substance as constituting its essence. For him, the attribute of thought is attached to mind and extension to the body. He says that the object of idea constituting the human mind is the body which is certain mode of extension. He says that Therefore, the minds power of understanding extends only as far as that which this idea of the body contains within itself, or which follows there from. Now this idea of the body involves and expresses no other attributes of God than extension and thought.  [43]  This attribute enables us to understand and talk about an extended world and a thinking world in terms of which we understand bodies and minds. He partly invented this theory of attribute for the sake of solving an outstanding question raised by Descartes philosophy of mind. If the mind is, or belongs to, a separate substance from that of the body, then how does the body-mind interact? In order to avoid the problem, Spinoza considered that mind and body is one and the same thing under the attribute of extension and thought. Though the Cartesian notion of dualism was logical, it had constant problems. It coul d not substantially explain the relationship between substance constructed as individual and substance constructed as matter or stuff. But Spinozas explanation came very close to a satisfactory theory.  [44]   1.3.2.2 Anomalous Monism Anomalous monism is proposed by Donald Davidson, who is an American pragmatist. Anomalous monism is a philosophical thesis about the mind- body relationship. This theory has twofold divisions; namely mental and physical.  [45]  It states that mental events are identical with physical events. Events are causes in virtue of the properties that they instantiate, unless mental properties and physical properties are also identified, questions about the causal redundancy of the mental reappear at the level of properties.  [46]  But Davidson says that the mental events are anomalous, that is to say these mental events are not regulated by strict physical laws. Hence, he proposed an identity theory of mind without the reductive bridge laws associated with the type-identity theory. He understands the ontological nature of the relationship of mental events especially propositional attitudes with physical actions. Davidson accepts that there is ontology of events where events, which may seem to be opposed to objects or states of affairs, are the fundamental, irreducible entities of the mental and physical universe. He also believes that event-individuation must be done on the basis of causal powers. He further argues in favour of the individualization of events on the basis of spatio-temporal localization. According to this view, all events are caused by and cause other events and for him this is the defining characteristics of what an event is. The important aspect of Davidsons ontology of events for anomalous monism is that an event has an indefinite number of properties or aspects. He says that a very simple physical action like switching on a light has a large variety of mental events especially reasoning; for example recognizing the need of light, making a choice to switch on etc. For Davidson, a particular reason causes a particular action. Thus it explains that reasons are causes and actions are effects of the causal efficacy of the mental events.  [47]   However there are also people who are highly critical about it. One of the criticisms about the anomalous monism is whether mental events are ever causes of physical events in virtue of their mental properties. Gibb says that If the mental properties of a mental event do make a causal difference, then unless one admits systematic causal over determination, this is to violate the causal closure principle, for according to it an events physical properties are sufficient for the causal effects that event has within the physical domain.  [48]  It is otherwise the mental properties of an event make no causal difference to the physical effects that the event has, then mental properties have the status of epiphenomena. He observes that Consequently, to identify mental events with physical events whilst distinguishing mental properties from physical properties are not to remove but merely to relocate the problem of mental causation.  [49]  For this reason, the non-reductive physicali st who identifies token mental events with physical events but maintains a property dualism can plausibly be accused of property epiphenomenalism. Secondly a strict law cannot be formulated in the same terms as the causal claim because causally related events must have descriptions under which they instantiate a strict law. Similarly, the causal claim and the relevant covering law cannot be formulated in purely mental terms because any mental event that causes a physical event must be characterizable in physical terms and therefore be physical. Hence, mental events are physical events. On the other hand, as there are no strict psychophysical laws that would support the reduction of mental concepts to physical concepts, anomalous monism leads to the rejection of any conceptual reduction.  [50]   1.3.2.3 Non-reductive Materialism Non-reductive materialism represents the current orthodoxy in Western Philosophy thinking about the ontological status of the mind. The proponents of non-reductive materialism hold that the mental is ontologically part of the material world; yet, mental properties are causally efficacious without being reducible to physical properties.  [51]  Even though the mind itself is really physical, our mentalist explanatory scheme is not reducible to physics but is instead autonomous. They hold both irreducibility of the mind as well physical nature of the mind as realism. They are also arguing that they are fundamentally unstable combination. The non-reductionist distinguishes mental kinds from physical kinds, where the mental includes sensation and thought, and the physical is roughly the domain of the physical sciences, including neurophysiology. But those who oppose it say that the whole question of explanatory autonomy became a topical philosophical issue which threatened the reducti onism because there was a general acceptance of materialist theories. It was broadly a metaphysical doctrine. It would seem to follow that all phenomena are susceptible to physical explanation, and if this is true then what can the ontological status be of those concepts, categories and theories which fall outside the domain of the physical sciences?  [52]  Then the non-reductive materialist may have to give up all pretense of having a realist view of mental terms, giving up all talk of real but non-physical mental properties. It seems that you cannot combine Physicalism with realism about the mental and at the same time hold out for the autonomy of the mental. However non-reductive materialism could be still seen as fundamentally a stable position. 1.4 An Appraisal of Mind-Body Relations Though Descartes argues for the mind-body dualism,  [53]  the sort of dualism for which he argues, entails certain conceptual difficulties and seemingly insuperable problems. The main difficulty with mental activity is that, as Descartes understands them, how do the mind and matter interact. If minds are as distinct from material things as Descartes claims, it seems at least paradoxical that the two sorts of substances should interact. The question of the relation between the mental and the physical can be posed equivalently as about mental and ph